Taiwan: A Model of Minority Rights and Muslim Freedom

Introduction: The Taiwanese Exception

Taiwan represents a truly unique and multifaceted experience regarding the life of Islamic minorities. In a world where minority groups often face systemic marginalization or cultural erosion, Taiwan stands as a beacon of pluralism. Here, a small Muslim minority lives amidst a vast majority of adherents to other faiths—primarily Buddhism, Taoism, and traditional folk religions—without being subjected to persecution, state-sponsored discrimination, or the infringement of their fundamental human rights.

This environment has transformed Taiwan into a distinctive model of coexistence. The island is not merely a place where different religions exist side-by-side; it is a society where the government actively facilitates the religious practices of its minority citizens, viewing their presence as a cultural enrichment rather than a challenge to national identity. To understand this phenomenon, one must look at the intersection of Taiwan’s complex history, its democratic evolution, and the resilient spirit of the Muslim community that has called this island home for centuries.

Geographical and Political Context: The Two Chinas

Geographically and politically, the name "Taiwan" carries significant weight. It refers to the largest island in an archipelago that constitutes the territory of the "Republic of China" (ROC). It is crucial for international readers to distinguish the Republic of China (Taiwan) from its neighbor across the strait, the "People's Republic of China" (PRC).

While the PRC is a centralized socialist state under the leadership of the Communist Party, the ROC on Taiwan has evolved into one of the most vibrant and transparent democracies in Asia. This political distinction is vital to the story of Islam on the island. While religious practice in the PRC is often strictly monitored and, in some regions like East Turkestan (Xinjiang), severely repressed, the ROC has made religious freedom a cornerstone of its national identity. The islands surrounding the main island of Taiwan—such as Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu—further contribute to the strategic and cultural landscape of this democratic stronghold.

The Historical Arrival of Islam (17th Century)

The presence of Islam in Taiwan is not a modern phenomenon but one that dates back to the 17th century. The first major wave of Muslim settlement occurred in 1661, a pivotal year in the island’s history. During this time, the legendary military leader Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) launched a campaign to liberate Taiwan from Dutch colonial rule, which had centered around the southern city of Tainan.

Accompanying Koxinga’s forces were several Muslim families from the coastal province of Fujian in southern China. These families were not merely soldiers; they were settlers who brought their faith and customs to the southern shores of the island. Following the successful expulsion of the Dutch, Koxinga established the Kingdom of Tungning. It is believed that these Fujianese Muslims were the true pioneers of Islam on the island.

However, historical records suggest that over the centuries, the descendants of these original settlers were gradually absorbed into the broader Taiwanese society. Due to the lack of dedicated religious infrastructure and the immense pressure of local cultural assimilation, many adopted local Han Chinese customs and shifted toward indigenous religions. By the early 20th century, the distinct Islamic identity of these original families had largely faded, leaving behind only trace genealogical evidence.

The Impact of Japanese Colonialism (1895–1945)

The trajectory of Islam in Taiwan was severely disrupted during the half-century of Japanese colonial rule. Following the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895, the Qing Dynasty ceded Taiwan to the Empire of Japan. Under the Japanese administration, the government pursued a policy of "Japanization" (Kominka), which sought to transform the local population into loyal subjects of the Emperor.

Religion played a central role in this policy. The Japanese authorities viewed Islam as a "foreign religion" and a potential source of subversion or external influence. Consequently, the practice of Islam was strictly prohibited or heavily restricted. This forced the remaining local Muslims to practice their faith in the utmost secrecy. Public expressions of faith were banned, and the construction of mosques was forbidden.

Professor Lian Ya-tang, in his seminal 1918 work The History of Taiwan, noted that while a small number of Muslims remained on the island—mostly those who had arrived from other mainland provinces—there was no organized community or visible religious propagation. The last Imam to reach Taiwan from mainland China before the complete colonial isolation arrived in 1922. For decades, the flame of Islam was kept alive only in the private homes of the faithful, hidden from the prying eyes of colonial administrators.

Post-War Recovery and the 1949 Divide

The end of World War II in 1945 saw the return of Taiwan to the Republic of China. Initially, this led to a brief resurgence of Islamic activity. In 1948, the tradition of sending Imams from the Chinese mainland resumed, providing much-needed spiritual guidance to the dormant community. However, the geopolitical landscape shifted dramatically on October 1, 1949, when Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China in Beijing.

The ensuing retreat of the ROC government, led by the Kuomintang (KMT), to Taiwan created a total rift between the island and the mainland. For the Muslim community, this meant the complete cessation of religious exchanges with the traditional Islamic centers of the mainland. From that point on, the Muslims of Taiwan had to forge their own path, independent of the developments in the PRC.

Ethnic and Jurisprudential Origins

The majority of native Taiwanese Muslims today descend from the "Hui" people—Chinese Muslims who are ethnically Han but religiously Islamic. They are overwhelmingly adherents of the Sunni branch of Islam, with a historical leaning toward the Hanafi school of jurisprudence (Madhhab).

One of the most remarkable aspects of the Taiwanese Muslim experience is the absence of sectarian conflict. Because the community is relatively small and focused on preserving its identity in a non-Muslim environment, differences in jurisprudential interpretation remain confined to academic circles or minor variations in ritual practice. There is a profound sense of "Ummah" (community) that transcends minor school-of-thought differences.

Citizenship and Religious Freedom in the Modern Era

In modern Taiwan, Muslims enjoy full and uninhibited freedom of belief, a right protected by the Constitution of the Republic of China. Unlike their counterparts in regions where religious identity is a liability, Taiwanese Muslims are full participants in the nation’s democratic life.

The government’s commitment to pluralism is not merely rhetorical. It is reflected in the fact that Muslims have reached the highest levels of government and civil service. Muslims have served as members of the Legislative Yuan (Parliament), as cabinet ministers, and as high-ranking military officers. This level of integration serves as a sharp contrast to the hardships faced by Muslims in the People's Republic of China and East Turkestan, where state policies often involve mass surveillance, internment, and forced secularization. In Taiwan, being a Muslim is seen as an integral part of being a citizen.

The Demographic Landscape Today

As of late 2024, the demographic profile of Islam in Taiwan is undergoing a significant transformation. There are approximately 60,000 "native" Taiwanese Muslims, accounting for about 0.3% of the total population of 23.4 million. A notable trend within this group is the rise of new converts, the majority of whom are women. Many of these conversions occur through marriage to Muslim men of Chinese descent, but an increasing number of individuals are drawn to Islam through personal study and spiritual searching.

However, the "native" population is only one part of the story. The total Muslim population in Taiwan is estimated at nearly 250,000 when accounting for the vast number of migrant workers and expatriates.

• Indonesian Community: There are roughly 150,000 Indonesian Muslims working in Taiwan’s industrial and domestic sectors. They form the backbone of the "visible" Muslim presence in many cities.
• Diverse Nationalities: The community also includes thousands of Muslims from Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and over 30 other nations.

This internationalization of Islam in Taiwan has created a cosmopolitan religious environment. While the native community is 90% "Hui," the influx of Turks, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, and South Asians has turned Taiwanese mosques into vibrant centers of global diversity.

The Challenge of Population Decline

Despite the spiritual growth of the community, Taiwan faces a broader demographic crisis that affects all sectors of society, including Muslims. The island has one of the lowest birth rates in the world. Official data shows that by the end of 2024, the population dropped to 23.4 million, a decrease of over 20,000 compared to the previous year.

This marks the ninth consecutive year of population decline. For the Muslim community, this means that natural growth is slow. Most of the population growth within the faith comes from immigration and conversion rather than birth rates. This reality places a greater emphasis on the need for active social integration and the preservation of religious identity among the younger generation.

The Four Historical Waves of Migration

The history of Islam in Taiwan can be categorized into four distinct migratory waves, each contributing a different layer to the community's fabric.

The First Wave: The Koxinga Pioneers

As mentioned, this wave arrived in the 1600s. While their religious identity was largely lost to history through assimilation, they established the first "footprint" of Islam on the island. Their legacy is today found in specific family names and ancestral shrines that still bear subtle Islamic motifs, even if the current families practice other faiths.

The Second Wave: The 1949 Exodus

The most significant wave in terms of institutionalizing Islam occurred during the Chinese Civil War. In 1949, approximately 20,000 Muslim families fled to Taiwan alongside the KMT government. These were not just refugees; they were elite soldiers, civil servants, and scholars.

This wave was led by figures like General Bai Chongxi, a renowned military strategist and a devout Muslim. General Bai became the founding chairman of the Chinese Muslim Association (CMA) in Taiwan. These migrants brought with them a sophisticated understanding of Islam and a determination to rebuild their institutions in their new home. They were responsible for the construction of the major mosques that define the landscape today.

The Third Wave: The 1953 UN Resettlement

The third wave was born out of geopolitical tension in Southeast Asia. In 1953, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the presence of PRC-aligned irregular forces in Burma (Myanmar) and calling for the respect of Burmese sovereignty.

As part of a complex agreement involving Taiwan and Thailand, 5,883 soldiers and 1,040 civilians were evacuated to Taiwan. A significant majority of these individuals were Muslims from the border regions of Yunnan. These settlers were relocated to the Zhongli district, where they eventually built the Longgang Mosque in 1967. This community remains a distinct and tight-knit sub-culture within Taiwanese Islam, preserving specific regional customs and culinary traditions.

The Fourth Wave: Modern Migrants and Refugees

Since the 1980s, a fourth wave has emerged, consisting of Muslims from Myanmar and Thailand seeking economic opportunity or fleeing religious persecution under radical Buddhist regimes. Many are descendants of "Lost Army" nationalist soldiers who had remained in the Golden Triangle after 1949. These migrants have largely settled in New Taipei City and Taoyuan, contributing to the revitalization of urban Muslim life.

The Institutional Pillar: The Chinese Muslim Association (CMA)

The Chinese Muslim Association (CMA) is the preeminent Islamic organization in Taiwan. It serves as the official liaison between the Muslim community and the government. Its headquarters are located at the Taipei Grand Mosque, an architectural marvel that stands as a symbol of the state's respect for Islam.

The CMA is responsible for:

1. Religious Oversight: Managing mosques and appointing Imams.
2. Social Welfare: Distributing Zakat and providing aid to those in need.
3. Education: Organizing religious classes and summer camps.
4. International Relations: Representing Taiwanese Muslims in the global Islamic community (the Ummah).

Education and the Preservation of Faith

A major challenge for Muslims in Taiwan is the absence of formal Islamic education within the public school system. To counter the risk of secularization, the community has developed a robust informal education network.

Mosque-Based Learning

On weekends, mosques across the island transform into classrooms. Children are taught the Arabic language, the Quran, the Hadith, and the fundamentals of Sharia. These programs are often the only way for the youth to maintain a connection to their heritage in a society that is 99% non-Muslim.

Higher Education and University Links

National Chengchi University (NCCU) hosts the Department of Arabic Language and Culture. This department is a vital link between Taiwan and the Arab world. Through academic exchanges with universities in Kuwait, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, Taiwanese students gain exposure to deep Islamic scholarship.

Furthermore, the government’s "New Southbound Policy" has encouraged educational exchanges with Southeast Asian Muslim nations. Universities like the National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (NTUST) have become hubs for international Muslim students. These campuses host "International Muslim Student Associations" that hold annual exhibitions on Islamic history, science, and culture, effectively acting as "mini-ambassadors" for the faith.

The Halal Economy: A Strategic Priority

Recognizing both the needs of its citizens and the potential for international tourism, the Taiwanese government has invested heavily in the "Halal Economy." This is not just about food; it is a comprehensive infrastructure project.

In 2013, the government sponsored the first "Taiwan International Halal Expo" in Taipei. Today, there are hundreds of Halal-certified establishments across the island. The certification process is rigorous and managed by the Taiwan Halal Integrity Development Association. There are two tiers of certification:

• Halal Certificate: For establishments owned and operated by Muslims.
• Halal-Friendly Certificate: For non-Muslim businesses that adhere to strict Halal preparation standards to serve Muslim guests.

This focus extends even to the military. Muslim soldiers serving in the Republic of China Armed Forces are provided with specific cooking utensils and specialized rations to ensure they can maintain their dietary laws while fulfilling their national duty.

Social Life: Ramadan, Eid, and the Mosque’s Role

The month of Ramadan and the subsequent Eid al-Fitr celebrations are moments of high visibility for Islam in Taiwan. The government and media play a proactive role in these festivities.

In Taipei, the city government facilitates the "Eid in Taipei" festival, often held in Da’an Forest Park. This park is strategically located next to the Taipei Grand Mosque, allowing thousands of worshipers to transition from prayer to public celebration. It is common for the Mayor of Taipei or even the President of the Republic to attend, offering greetings and reaffirming the place of Muslims in the "Taiwanese family."

The mosque serves as more than a place of prayer; it is a social safety net. Mosques collect funds to assist migrant workers who may be facing legal or economic difficulties. They provide a sense of home for the 150,000 Indonesians who are far from their families, ensuring that no Muslim in Taiwan feels truly alone.

The Hajj Pilgrimage: A State-Supported Journey

The spiritual aspiration of every Muslim is to perform the Hajj. For Taiwanese Muslims, this journey is facilitated by the state. Since the first delegation in 1925, the tradition of the Hajj has been central to the community.

Today, nearly 50% of native Taiwanese Muslims have performed the Hajj. Each year, the government sends an official Hajj delegation. Upon their return, the President of Taiwan traditionally hosts a reception for the pilgrims. In July 2024, President Lai Ching-te welcomed the returning group, stating: "Islam has enriched the cultural diversity of Taiwan. I hope that Muslims around the world can look at Taiwan’s model of respect and harmony as a source of inspiration."

Navigating the Challenges of a Fast-Paced Society

Despite the many successes, the Muslim community faces significant structural challenges:

1. The Work-Life Conflict

Taiwan is famous for its high-pressure work culture. Because the official weekend falls on Saturday and Sunday, many Muslims find it difficult to attend the Jumu'ah (Friday) prayer. While some employers are accommodating, the rigid structure of the industrial economy means that many are forced to miss the weekly sermon, which is a vital source of spiritual nourishment.

2. Secularization and Materialism

The younger generation of Taiwanese Muslims is growing up in a society where "success" is often defined by material wealth and social status. In a culture dominated by bars, night clubs, and secular values, some youth feel that religious commitment is "unprofitable" or outdated. The CMA and other organizations are constantly innovating to make the faith relevant to the modern, tech-savvy Taiwanese youth.

3. The Burial Crisis

One of the most pressing practical issues is the lack of affordable burial land. Islamic law requires that the deceased be buried in the earth, preferably within 24 hours. However, land in Taiwan is among the most expensive in the world, and traditional Taiwanese funerals can take weeks or months.

In some cases, if land cannot be secured within 72 hours, the community faces the difficult choice of sea burial—a provision allowed in Islamic law only under extreme necessity. The community continues to lobby the government for dedicated cemetery space to ensure that Muslims can be laid to rest with dignity and in accordance with their faith.

A Directory of Islamic Strength: Key Organizations

The vibrancy of Islam in Taiwan is sustained by a network of dedicated organizations:

1. Indonesian Muslim Family (Keluarga Muslim Indonesia): The vital link for the largest migrant community.
2. Chinese Muslim Association (CMA): The historical and administrative backbone of the faith in Taiwan.
3. Islamic Association of Taiwan: A growing presence in the eastern city of Hualien.
4. Chinese Muslim Youth League: Focused on the intellectual and social needs of the younger generation.
5. Chinese Islamic Cultural and Educational Foundation: The premier body for academic and pedagogical Islamic work.
6. Taiwan Halal Integrity Development Association: Ensuring the purity of the food supply.
7. Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) Taiwan Branch: A powerful social force connecting Indonesian workers to their roots.

Conclusion: A Vision of Peace and Justice

The story of Islam in Taiwan is a story of resilience, adaptation, and mutual respect. While the Muslim community remains a small minority, its impact on the cultural and moral fabric of the nation is profound.

Through the proactive efforts of the government to ensure peace, justice, and the protection of the weak, Taiwan has created a society where religious harmony is not just a dream, but a daily reality. As the world grapples with rising intolerance, the "Taiwan Model" offers a powerful lesson: that a nation is strongest not when it enforces a single identity, but when it protects and celebrates the diverse beliefs of all its people. In the heart of East Asia, the call to prayer continues to ring out, a testament to a democracy that truly values the soul of its citizens.